Report from Conservation Chair

THE STATUS OF LARGE MAMMALS & SOME SELECTED BIRDS IN NORTH AMERICA

Bob Berghier, August 15, 2009

This article is based on a talk that I gave in June to the Weekend Docents. The content is based on nearly 35 years of personal research on North American wildlife management and conservation issues.

At the turn of the previous century (1901) some species of animals that we now consider common such as white-tailed deer, beaver, wild turkey, Canada goose, mallard ducks, great blue heron and great egret would have been considered endangered species in the eastern United States. White-tailed deer & beaver were driven into local extinction due to the fur and animal hide trade, wild turkey by over hunting and the clearing of the eastern forest, Canada goose and mallards by market hunting, and the heron & egret by the trade in feathers for women’s hats. What saved these species and numerous others was a series of wildlife protection laws passed by National & State legislators and supported by the active lobbying of sports hunters and the newly formed National Audubon Society.

These laws stopped wild birds from being shipped across State lines for commercial purposes, which ended the exploitation of migratory birds for human food (market hunting) and the feather trade. Similar legislation protected species of large & fur bearing mammals with controlled hunting & trapping seasons. Both National & State governments set up laws for hunting licensees, fur trapping fees and taxes on ammunition that eventually were used to establish & fund the National Wildlife Refuge system, State wildlife management areas and game wardens and rangers to enforce game laws. This along with the re-growth of forest & restocking, allowed the white-tailed deer, beaver & wild turkey to return to the East. Eventually these sources also funded wildlife research and the biologists needed to conduct that research. In short, without the financial support of sports hunters little if any of North Americas large herbivores, fur-bearing mammals, game birds and migratory waterfowl would still be with us today. Whatever your personal feelings are about sports hunting, American hunters have funded what may be the most successful wildlife restoration effort on earth and could be a model for other regions on our heavily populated planet.

This is not to say that all of North America’s large mammals benefited from these efforts. Ironically by 1901 while the aforementioned animals were on the verge of extinction, western predators such as black & grizzly bear, pumas, jaguar, & wolves – gray, red & Mexican - were all thriving, preying on the huge numbers of sheep & cattle free ranging on the western plains & mountains. Anti-predator bounties and unregulated hunting and systematic predator control within 40 years nearly eliminated all these mammals plus birds of prey (raptors) such as golden eagles, hawks – red tailed, red-shouldered, Coopers and sharp-shinned. Others raptors such as bald eagles and peregrine falcons were eventually imperiled by chemical pollutants. Conservation efforts for these species did not start in earnest until the 1970’s with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the banning of DDT and the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency. Say what you want about former President Richard Nixon but no other leader of this Nation since has done more for these species and wildlife in general. The main conservation organizations behind this legislation were the National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, and the Defenders of Wildlife.

What follows is a quick species review of the current status of some selected species.

Waterfowl in general – numbers for the most species improving since 1901 with some such as Canada geese, snow geese and mallard ducks in some areas now considered pests. Most wetland habitat for these species has been purchased through Federal & State Duck Stamps (actually a type of waterfowl hunting license), and hunting organizations such as “Ducks Unlimited”.

Whooping cranes – the migratory population is increasing slowly but the establishment of at least 3 non-migratory flocks is essential for long-term survival.

California condors – this is one species that Zoos have managed to save. Once re-introduction efforts started in the Grand Canyon region and the Mexican Baja this species future now looks bright. An historical side note to this effort is that the Sierra Club actually proposed in the 1970’s that this species be allowed to go “gracefully into extinction rather than expose it to the indignity of captivity”! FortunatFish & Wildlife, California State & National Audubon biologist didn’t heed that advice.

Bald Eagles & peregrine falcons – saved by the Endangered Species Act and the banning of DDT. The bald eagle’s National symbol status didn’t hurt either. Having lived nearly my entire life in Philadelphia I am amazed that this year there are now three breeding pairs of bald eagles within City limits. In the Eastern USA peregrine re-introduction efforts have been more successful in urban areas. It is believed great horned owl predation in rural areas severely affects this species.

Other raptor species – being added to the protection laws of the Migratory Bird Act in the 1970’s was the key. This is why you now often see red-tailed hawks along our highways, within our cities and even on the grounds of the Philadelphia Zoo, as well as Coopers & sharp-skinned hawks stalking your bird feeders.

Wild turkey – now so common I’ve seen then in the Fairmont Park system within Philadelphia city limits and a few times even down the street from my house in Andorra Northwest Philadelphia. Wild turkeys have benefited by fields and farms being abandoned and converting back to woodlands & forest. And re-introduction by State Game departments and hunters.

White-tailed deer – as above with the wild turkey, habitat change and reintroduction has made this species the most common wild ungulate in the world. I can remember going for week long camping trips in central Pennsylvania in the 1960’s as a kid and counting perhaps ½ dozen per trip. The original Eastern subspecies was probably hunted out and nearly all-local deer are descendent from animals taken from the Great Lakes or Western USA. Has now become a regional pest in many urban areas.

Mule & black-tailed deer – while not such an “urban” problem deer, as the white-tailed species numbers are high. Some Western population may be in trouble in the future due to development on lowland winter ranges.

Elk – was nearly driven to extinction and the Eastern subspecies most likely was. Has good populations out West and has successfully been re-introduced in the East with the Pennsylvania herd now doing well and promoted as a tourist attraction. PA elk hunting licenses fund the State elk biologist who not only sets hunting quotas but also looks for other areas in the Sate to allow expansion of the herd.

Moose – re-colonizing areas of New England, New York State and the Great Lakes where they have not been seen for several generations. In some areas of New England moose have become a major road hazard.

Caribou – three types: barren ground, woodland & mountain. Since hunting controls were established barren ground caribou numbers have been dependent on weather and numbers fluctuate based on the severity of artic winters. Contrary to some conservation organizations dogma, barren ground caribou numbers on the Prudhoe Bay oil fields have increased. The reason for the increase is, however, due the lack of tolerance for the caribou’s major predators - wolves and grizzly bears. Woodland & mountain caribou (some scientists consider these to be the same subspecies) have not done well in the lower 48 States. Re-introduction efforts in northern Maine have failed and the small herd that ranges between Northern Idaho and Southern British Columbia are considered the most endangered recognized large mammal in the United States. The projected climate change with Global Warming may make keeping this species in the lower 48 a losing proposition.

Pronghorns - after hunting controls were established numbers of this species rebounded. Some populations may be in trouble in the future due to development on lowland winter ranges. The Sonora Desert subspecies is considered endangered and the planned immigration border fence would separate the herd that ranges across the USA & Mexican border.

Mountain goat - after hunting controls were established numbers of this species rebounded. The species was also introduced to areas in which it was not previously recorded. In the Olympia Mountains of Washington State the species had to be removed because it was eating rare species of indigenous plants into extinction.

Musk ox – hunted out on the Alaskan and Canadian mainland, the species was re-introduced from animals captured on Greenland. On the mainland of Alaska the Arctic National Wildlife herd as recently dropped close to local extinction most likely due to heavy barren ground grizzly predation on calves.

Bighorn sheep – the one large herbivore species whose numbers have not recovered to pre 1900 levels. Three types are recognized: Rocky Mountain, desert and stone (California). At one time a fourth type, Audubon sheep, was believed to have been market-hunted to extinction. Recent genetic studies show that this type was nearly identical to the Rocky Mountain bighorns. Bighorn sheep are very vulnerable to winter range habitat development, disease spread by domestic sheep and in California, by pumas that have learned to specialize in killing wild sheep.

Dall sheep – a Northern mountain specialist. After hunting controls were established numbers of this species has rebounded.

Collared peccary – in some urban areas of the Southwest USA this species has become a pest digging up irrigation pipes and while defending itself, badly injuring and sometimes killing domestic dogs. (My thanks to weekend Docent Joan Johnson, now living during the winter in Tucson AZ who confirmed this for me)

North American Bison – saved from extinction by a combination of the USA & Canadian National Park systems and captive breeding, led and organized by the New York Zoological Society. This animal is now so common thousands have been semi domesticated. Two types, plains and woodland bison, are found in North America. The Canadian National Park system has taken the lead by re-introducing and replacing the plains-bison with the wood-bison in appropriate habitat within the species historic range. Genetic evidence shows that 80 % of the plains bison herds in the lower 48 States have some domestic cattle genes. A plan is being developed to eliminate those individuals and make the wild herds pure plains bison.

American beaver – during the 1800’s the most frequently sought fur-bearing animal in the world. Populations were trapped out all across North America and the species was only saved when beaver fur trimmed hats for men went out of fashion. The species numbers have increased due to re-introduction and natural re-colonization. In some areas, beavers are now considered pests, particularly in Southern New Jersey where their dams are blamed for local flooding.

Black bears - once considered rare across its entire range this species has become one the most common species of bear in the world. Once the animal became legal game and hunting controlled, numbers rebounded. It is now believed that over ¼ million are now found in the lower 48 States. Recently black bears have been seen in upper Bucks County close to Philadelphia.

Brown bears – also know as grizzly & Kodiak bears, numbers slowly increasing but still vulnerable to human and perhaps in the future, climate change in the lower 48 States. This species could easily be re-introduced into other Western States in the lower 48 but for anti-predator State government policies. Perhaps if the policies adapted to increase the numbers of the black bear were applied to brown bears, the specie’s numbers and range would increase.

Polar bear – most populations until recently stable. The effects of decreased ice flow in the arctic has lowered some populations, not others. Industrial pollutants in some populations (particularly in Norway) a potential threat.

North American river otter - an endangered species due to fur trapping and water quality in the Eastern USA until recently. Controlled trapping seasons and re-introduction programs has this species repopulating much of its previous range. Clean water regulations have also increased fish numbers that the otters feed on. Several years ago an otter was photographed in the Schuykill River fish ladder at the Art Museum Falls. Otters have also been confirmed in the Heniz National Wildlife Refuge located within Philadelphia city limits.

Canada lynx – a habitat and specific prey (snowshoe hare) specialist, this species recently got placed on the endangered species list in the lower 48. However lynx have been recorded naturally re-colonizing Northern New England and the Colorado re-introduction project is now seeing reproduction in the wild.

Bobcat – this is another species whose numbers increased when state wildlife policies decided to change its status from vermin to a legally hunted and trapped game animal. Numbers are increasing in the East and the biologist who studies and sets hunting and trapping limits for bobcats in Pennsylvania is funded by hunting and trapping State license fees for this species.

Ocelot – small vulnerable populations still holding on in Texas close to the Mexican border. Like the Sonora pronghorn can be severely effected by anti immigration policies (brush clearance) and fences on the border.

Jaguar - this formerly native species was first confirmed back in the USA by photographs in the 1990’s. So far only males have been seen or photographed. Until breeding females are confirmed the future of wild jaguars in the USA is precarious. Like the ocelot, anti immigration policies could affect this species. However, if the USA was serious about having jaguars return we would be releasing female jaguars in appropriate habitat. Doing so would also give our nation more credibility when we “suggest’ how Mexico, Central America and South America manage their jaguars. The Philadelphia Zoos support for a viable Mexican jaguar population nearest to the USA is very important for the potential recovery of this species.

Puma – like the bobcat another species whose numbers increased when state wildlife policies decided to change the status of pumas from vermin to a legally hunted big game. Populations in the Western States has increased and puma hunting license fees fund nearly all puma biologist and research on the big cat. The Black Hills South Dakota (where the Zoo’s 3 pumas originated) have been genetically determined to be the source of breeding puma populations now found in Western Nebraska, North Dakota and Saskatchewan and transient individuals killed by human related causes in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Kansas & Oklahoma. As for the presence of pumas in the East. Having been involved researching this question since 1994 I can without hesitation say no positive evidence as of yet exists for wild pumas (except for the Florida population) East of the Mississippi River but evidence of released or escaped captive animals is strong.

Gray wolves – populations in Northern Canada and Alaska have been strong for sometime. Great Lakes wolf populations have increased from Minnesota into Wisconsin and Upper Michigan. Rocky Mountain wolf re-introduction in Yellowstone and Idaho has been a great success. Wolves on their own are starting to spread into Western Washington & Oregon. Having this species recover in other Western Sates is made difficult by established anti-predator policies of certain State governments.

Mexican wolves - some canid biologists consider this a separate species. This species breeds readily in captivity and captive born animals can be successfully introduced into the wild. However local anti-predator prejudice to date has prevented this re-introduction project from being as successful as Yellowstone’s.

Red wolf – as with the Mexican wolf some canid biologists consider this a separate species. This species once ranged throughout the Southeastern USA into Eastern Texas and perhaps as far north as Southeastern PA. A long running re-introduction project in eastern North Carolina has been moderately successful. However this effort is dependent on trapping Eastern coyotes in the re-introduction range. Eastern coyotes are thought to pose a inter-breeding danger to the genetic purity of these species. However, see below.

Eastern coyote – now well established in every Eastern state (including within the city limits of Philadelphia) and all Canadian Atlantic Provinces including Newfoundland. Some canid biologists now believe that the Eastern coyote is actually a type of wolf closely related to the “bush wolves” found in Ontario’s Algonquin Provincial Park. The Algonquin wolves are genetically very similar to the red wolf. If this theory is eventually confirmed the status of the red wolf and its re-introduction project will need to be reexamined.